Aggasiz was born in Switzerland and educated there and in Germany, receiving a PhD. in 1829 in natural science, and a Doctorate in surgery and medicine in 1830, the later to please his Calvinist father.

In 1846 he moved to America where he became a professor of Zoology at Harvard, founded the Anderson School of Natural History near Cap Cod (one of the first coed colleges) that eventually became Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Agassiz was a passionate collector and established what would become the Museum of Comparative Zoology in Cambridge, Massachusetts. He advertized far and wide for specimens, living or dead.

According to Irmsher, Agassiz was a complex man, a great friend to Henry Wadsworth Longfellow and an arch-rival to Charles Darwin. He was a passionate scientist and part P.T. Barnum. And he had a dark side.

Irmsher writes that Agassiz’s story is “riven with the contradictions of a man who wanted to come across as both rigorously professional and unrelentingly popular, a man who believed that science practiced with due diligence could clear up not only the little problems that confounded the specialists but also the whole cosmic puzzle itself. Agassiz was one of the first to establish science as a collective enterprise. Yet he insisted on putting his own personal stamp on anything that came out of the museum he had founded and forbade his assistants to claim credit for any part of their own research done on company time. He was an ardent advocate of abolition, yet he also believed in the racial inferiority of blacks.”

Agassiz’s study of glaciers and fossils lead him to reject Darwin’s new theory of evolution. Rather, Agassiz was somewhat of a Creationist, but not as the term is currently used. Agassiz believed not in continuous evolution, but a series of creation events, in “oscillations,” where ice ages killed off everything and God created and recreated life anew.

Agassiz published over 400 books and scientific articles and was one of the first to propose that Europe and North America were once covered by glaciers. He was, however, a great proponent of field work, “study nature, not books.” He was also the consummate lecturer and his lectures were not confined to the classroom. His “popularity in America transcended class as well as regional boundaries.”

Irmsher spins an interesting story of a complex man based largely upon abundant correspondence from Agassiz, his contemporaries, and his wife and sister.

One of Agassiz’s great strengths was his ability to explain science to the layman. Irmsher writes in the epilogue, “as Louis Agassiz drifts into the sunset of this narrative, it is worth remembering how his struggles, problems, and aspirations are still with us. Yes, we haven’t moved beyond his biases and blindnesses as much as much as we would like to think we have, but that isn’t all. In my view, Louis Agassiz was never more provocative than when he argued science ought to be part of the general fabric of society.” I agree. More emphasis on science is needed in general education.

If you are interested in the history of science, its development and its characters, you will be interested in the story of Louis Agassiz.

The book is available is published by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt and is available at Amazon as a hardcover book (to be released Feb. 5) and a Kindle edition. It is also available from Barnes & Noble.

To help celebrate this anniversary, AZGS has created a special webpage:

http://www.azgs.az.gov/125th-anniversary-azgs.shtml

Included on that page is “Geosnaps – Image of the Day” a new photo every day depicting some aspect of Arizona geology or mining history.

Some other features will include:

Arizona Mining Review – a monthly webinar hosted by State Geologist Lee Allison to discuss Arizona mining – past, present and future.

Release of new & old geologic products bearing the 1888 – 2013, 125th anniversary logo.

Timeline graphic demarcating milestones in the history of Arizona geology.

A retrospective review on the state of geology of Arizona ca. 1888. Arizona Geology Magazine 125th year anniversary issue.

125th anniversary field trip(s).

Beginning January 23, there is the “Arizona Mining Review” with news and updates on the state of Arizona mining. Each month they will introduce a new topic and select a format – featured guest, panel discussion, Q&A session – to draw the most out of the topic.

Visit the anniversary site often.

The story of the evolution of SE Arizona is the subject of a featured article in the new Fall-Winter 2012 issue of Arizona Geology magazine, published by the Arizona Geological Survey. The paper is “Post-Tectonic Landscape Evolution in Southeastern Arizona: When Did a River Start to Run Through It?” by Matthew C. Jungers.

Initially, the basins had internal drainage and were not connected. Jungers’ story shows how geologic forces gradually connected the basins and how the Gila-Santa Cruz-San Pedro river system developed. The article also describes how he figured it out.

The graphic below shows the sequence of events according to Jungers:

His figure caption reads:

“Figure 2. Final stages of the Basin and Range disturbance. (A) Structural basins were filled with sediment, and most basins were still internally drained. (B) Following the cessation of extensional tectonics in the region, basins continued to fill with sediment and faults were buried. Basins began to integrate with the main stem Gila River via a combination of basin spillover and headward drainage capture. (C) Following integration with an adjacent basin, sedimentary fill was incised as its basin adjusted to a new, lower base level. (D) As a new, through-flowing drainage network was established, integrated basins graded to the Gila River. The shift to an oscillating climate in the Quaternary may be preserved in flights of terraces that record alternating periods of floodplain stability followed by rapid incision. Figure adapted from Menges and Pearthree, 1989.”

Read the full article here.

For more geology stories, see my Article Index page.

The Arizona Geological Survey has weighed in on this controversy in their new Fall-Winter 2012 issue of Arizona Geology magazine with an article by Wayne Ranney, a geologist who has long studied the canyon and has written a book about it. What follows are excerpts from Ranney’s article.

“The new theory involves two very complex and complicated laboratory techniques that can reveal when the canyon’s rocks were brought close to the surface. Using tiny apatite crystals collected from the basement rocks in the canyon (Vishnu Schist or Zoroaster Granite), the information yielded two different stories, one for the history of the western Grand Canyon and the other for the eastern canyon, where most tourists see the gorge. The results said that western Grand Canyon (downstream from Lava Falls) was cut to within a few hundred meters (about 1,000 feet) of its present depth by 70 Ma [million years ago]. The second story reported that the eastern area was the site of a canyon of similar proportions to the modern canyon by 55 Ma, and cut in Mesozoic rocks now completely eroded away. Incredibly, the western canyon was cut by a river that flowed exactly opposite to the modern Colorado River and the researchers call this the California River.”

Reread the paragraph above. It says that in the eastern canyon area, a canyon equal to the current one was formed, then disappeared.

Ranney continues:

 ”When the Cal Tech group began their study they assumed that the apatite samples would reveal that Grand Canyon’s rocks were buried in unequal amounts of overlying rock – unequal because the canyon today has 5,000 feet of relief and the lower samples should have been buried under more material than those collected from near the top.”

That concept is shown in figure 1. The red dots show the relative position where Flowers and Farley collected their samples.

“After running the laboratory technique the samples produced surprising results to the researchers. They showed that no matter from what depth the samples were collected, they all appeared to have been buried under equal amounts of overlying rock [figure 2]. When the tops of the blue arrows are connected here, they reveal a canyon-like topography in eastern Grand Canyon about 70 Ma. Below is a diagram [figure 3] that shows their interpretation of the data – a gorge of similar proportions was cut into the Mesozoic rocks that are now stripped back to the modern Echo and Vermilion Cliffs.”

 

Ranney opines that the laboratory technique used by Flowers and Farley “is not as evolved as one might hope for. Some assumptions are made that could result in different outcomes.”

Ranney also notes: “The evolutionary history of the Colorado River shows that its exact course through the canyon to the Gulf of California was accomplished in only the last 6 million years.” He emphasizes, however, that the age of the Colorado River is not necessarily the same as the canyon, “the age of its [the river’s] ancestors or some early incarnation of the canyon need not be so strictly confined.”

Read Ranney’s entire article here.

Check out other stories in Arizona Geology Magazine here.

For more geology stories, see my Article Index page.

The book is intended as a guide on how to prepare for and minimize damage from the ground shaking that accompanies earthquakes. It also explains the geology of earthquakes and why they occur.

Here is the AZGS press release:

Young, active faults exist in and around Arizona. The northern Arizona Seismic Belt, which bisects Coconino County, hosts the greatest concentration of active faults in the state and is the most seismically active region in Arizona. Some faults, such as the Lake Mary Fault just south of Flagstaff, are capable of large magnitude earthquakes, up to magnitude 7. Yavapai, Mohave, Yuma, Pima, Cochise, Graham, and Greenlee County all host faults capable of delivering moderate to large seismic events, too. And large earthquakes on faults from surrounding states and Mexico, including California’s San Andreas fault system, are capable of damaging homes and infrastructure and threatening lives here in Arizona.

“Arizona is Earthquake Country” includes a seven-step earthquake safety guide that shows how to prepare your family and home in advance of an earthquake; how to behave during an earthquake – whether indoors or out; and how to deal with damage and related issues immediately following an earthquake.

The booklet provides a primer on the nature and geology of earthquakes in Arizona, describes six prominent faults, and revisits three major historic earthquakes that impacted the state. Instructions on how to use the U.S. Geological Survey’s online earthquake probability tool to establish the risk of a damaging earthquake in your community are also provided. Sections on monitoring earthquakes, earthquake resources – including online resources, and a glossary, round out the text.

This earthquake preparedness guide is released just in time to complement Arizona’s first-ever Great Arizona ShakeOut, a two-minute “Drop, Cover, and Hold On” earthquake drill that can minimize personal injuries and save lives. Scheduled for 10:18 a.m. on October 18^th, enrollment in the ShakeOut drill is open to all, but K-12 schools are particularly encouraged to participate; for online enrollment visit the Register Here! page. To date, more than 13,300 have enrolled in ShakeOut.

Citation: Arizona Geological Survey, 2012, Arizona is Earthquake Country. Down-to-Earth #21, 44p.

Besides the features mentioned in the press release above, the book also discusses how we measure the magnitude of an earthquake; it’s not the old Richter Scale anymore. Links to additional resources are given at the end of the book. For instance, for teachers in middle and high school, there is a link for earth science lesson plans and activities. There are also several links to earthquake websites maintained by government and universities.

See also:

Earthquake videos from Arizona Geological Survey

Where the Next Big American Earthquake and Tsunami Might Occur

The Great Arizona-Sonora Earthquake of 1887

This book is written for the visitor who has an interest in geology, but may not have had formal training in the subject. It may also help ensure that the visiting geologist does not overlook some of the features described.

“The purpose of the field guide is to provide the reader with an understanding of the dynamic processes that have shaped this exceptional landscape. Many of the features discussed in the text will be encountered again and again as you continue to explore the Southwest. We hope that your experience at Catalina State Park and the Coronado National Forest will enhance the pleasure of those explorations.”

The value of this guide is that you learn about what may look to the untrained eye like ordinary features, maybe just a pile of rocks, but each feature has a story that bears on the geology of the region and provides you with a better appreciation of geological forces that shape our land.

Here is a map of the area covered:

Other publications in the AZGS series can be found here.

See also my posts on geology:

Arizona Geologic History: Chapter 1, Precambrian Time When Arizona was at the South Pole

Arizona Geological History: Chapter 2, Cambrian and Ordovician Time

Arizona Geological History: Chapter 3: Devonian to Permian Time

Arizona Geological History Chapter 4: Triassic Period

Arizona Geological History Chapter 5: Jurassic Time

Arizona Geological History 6, The Cretaceous Period

Arizona Geological History 7: The Cenozoic Era

Gold of Cañada del Oro and rumors of treasure

This publication has a two page introduction to the region describing the geological history, one of deserts, beaches, volcanic flows, uplift, and faulting. This is followed by descriptions of 24 “features.” Each feature has a great photograph and text explaining how it was formed. (See example page below.)

All of the features in this edition can be reached by short walks from Highways 89A and 79, Road 78, and from U.S. Forest Service roads. A map is provided near the front of the booklet. The back cover shows a stratigraphic column and a note by the author, Dr. John V. Bezy.

This booklet costs $8.95 and may be ordered from the Arizona Geological Survey, 416 W. Congress St. Suite 100., Tucson, AZ 85701 (order form here). Phone 520-770-3500, email: store@azgs.az.gov.

Other publications in the Down To Earth series:

DTE-1 Energy Resources of Arizona, by J.T. Duncan and F.P. Mancini, 1991, 17 p., scale 1:1,000,000. $6.50

DTE-2 Radon Gas: A Geologic Hazard in Arizona, by J.E. Spencer, 1992, 17 p. $2.50

DTE-3 Land Subsidence and Earth Fissures in Arizona, by S. Slaff, 1993, 24 p. $5.00

DTE-4 How Geologists Tell Time, by E.M. VandenDolder, 1995, 33 p. online at azgs.az.gov

DTE-5 ‘Things Geologic’, A Collection of Writings by H. Wesley Peirce, complied and edited by Robin Frisch-Gleason, 1996, 39 p. $8.00

DTE-6 Ice Age Mammals of the San Pedro River Valley Southeastern Arizona, by A.W. Amann, Jr., J.V. Bezy, R. Ratkevich, W.M. Witkind, 1997, 19 p. $6.95

DTE-7 Highlights of Northern Arizona Geology, compiled and edited by Robin Frisch-Gleason, 1998, 44 p. $7.95

DTE-9 A Guide to the Geology of Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument and the Pinacate Biosphere Reserve, by J.V. Bezy, J.T. Gutmann, and G.B. Haxel, 2000, 63 p. $7.95

DTE-10 Guide to Geologic Features at Petrified Forest National Park , by J.V. Bezy and A.S. Trevena, 2000, 48 p. $6.95

DTE-11 Rocks in the Chiricahua National Monument and the Fort Bowie National Historic Site, by J.V. Bezy, 2001, 48 p. $7.95

DTE-12 A Guide to the Geology of Catalina State Park and the Western Santa Catalina Mountains, by J.V. Bezy, 2002, 48 p. $7.95

DTE-13 A Home Buyer’s Guide to Geologic Hazards in Arizona, by R.C. Harris and P.A. Pearthree, 2002, 36 p. $8.95

DTE-14 A Guide to the Geology of the Flagstaff area, by J.V. Bezy, 2003, 56 p. $7.95

DTE-15 Roadside Geology: Wupatki and Sunset Crater Volcano National Monument, by S. L. Hanson 2003, 32 p. $6.95

DTE-16 A Guide to the Geology of the White Mountains and the Springerville Volcanic Field, Arizona, by J. V. Bezy and A. S. Trevena, 2003, 56 p. $7.95

DTE-17 A Guide to the Geology of Sabino Canyon and the Catalina Highway, by J.V. Bezy, 2004, 45 p. $7.95

DTE 18 A Guide to the Geology of Saguaro National Park, by J.V. Bezy, 2005, 36p. $7.95

DTE-19 A Geologic and Natural History Tour through Nevada and Arizona along U.S. Highway 93, by Joseph V. Tingly, Kris A Pizarro, Christopher Ross, and Phillip Pearthree, 2010, $27.95

See also my posts:

Arizona Geologic History: Chapter 1, Precambrian Time When Arizona was at the South Pole

Arizona Geological History: Chapter 2, Cambrian and Ordovician Time

Arizona Geological History: Chapter 3: Devonian to Permian Time

Arizona Geological History Chapter 4: Triassic Period

Arizona Geological History Chapter 5: Jurassic Time

Arizona Geological History 6, The Cretaceous Period

Arizona Geological History 7: The Cenozoic Era

The PETM temperature spike caused global temperatures to get even warmer.  Drill core data from deep-sea sediments in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans suggested a rapid rise (geologically rapid, i.e., 10,000 years) of 5°C to 9°C (9-16°F) higher than the existing temperature prior to the event, that is, to as much as 34°F warmer than now.  Global temperature stayed at this elevated level for about 100,000 years, then rapidly cooled back to the prevailing normal temperature and then cooled even more.  Atmospheric carbon dioxide is estimated to have risen from the prevailing 1,000 ppm to about 1,700 ppm, more than four times higher than today.

The cause of the temperature spike is controversial.  Theories include volcanic eruption and massive forest fires that could have put large quantities of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, changes in ocean circulation, and evolution of methane into the atmosphere.  Recent research shows that the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere was insufficient to cause all of the temperature rise (Zeebe et al.), and that warming began before the rise of carbon dioxide (Secord et al.).

The current favored hypothesis is that methane (CH₄) was the primary cause of temperature rise.  Methane is a powerful greenhouse gas and its evolution into the atmosphere could have initiated warming.  Carbon dioxide is formed by reaction of methane with oxygen. Under warming conditions carbon dioxide also exsolves from the ocean. Evidence suggests that warming happened in several pulses.  However, once all the methane was destroyed by reaction with oxygen, the planet cooled in spite of there being copious carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.  This shows that the weak warming effect of carbon dioxide is easily overcome by other natural forces.

Where did the methane come from? Let me set the scene. At the time of PETM, the continents were not in their present location.  The North Atlantic was just beginning to open to the Arctic Ocean; this could have changed the ocean circulation and hence the sea temperature. Volcanism and other tectonic disturbances were very active as the Atlantic opened.

There are two potential sources for methane.  One is methane hydrates sequestered in ocean sediments.  Methane hydrates are ice-like compounds of water and methane formed under cold deep sea temperatures and pressure.  Either a change in temperature or a change in pressure would release the methane.

The second, a perhaps more likely source, involves volcanism and organic methane sequestered in deep sea sediments, similar to the oil shale deposits now being explored.  As noted in Geotimes (October 2006), research in the Norwegian sea found thousands of hydrothermal vent complexes that date to the Paleocene-Eocene boundary.  As methane-bearing sediments were subducted deeper and deeper, they came into contact with hot magma from the mantle.  This can cause explosive events and rapid release of methane.  This scenario is supported by the high ratio of Carbon-12 to Carbon-13, indicating microbic generated methane, found at the PETM event.

With rapid warming came both death and opportunity.  Mammal diversity and range exploded as did that for terrestrial plants. The North American horse first appeared at this time.  At the same time, however, deep-dwelling ocean fauna suffered a rapid extinction.

Although the global temperature dropped rapidly after PETM once the methane was used up, another warming spike happened about 40 million years ago in mid-Eocene time, possibly due to a similar cause.  But afterwards another sharp cooling trend began and by 34 million years ago ice began to form in Antarctica.  Global temperatures have been dropping ever since.   We are presently in an interglacial period of an ice age that began about three million years ago.

References:

Ross Secord, Philip D. Gingerich, Kyger C. Lohmann & Kenneth G. MacLeod, 2010, Continental warming preceding the Palaeocene–Eocene thermal maximum, Nature 467,955–958.

Richard E. Zeebe, James C. Zachos & Gerald R. Dickens, 2009, Carbon dioxide forcing alone insufficient to explain Palaeocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum warming, Nature Geoscience 2, 576 – 580 (2009)

See also:

Ice Ages and Glacial Epochs

Arizona Geologic History: Chapter 1, Precambrian Time When Arizona was at the South Pole

Arizona Geological History: Chapter 2, Cambrian and Ordovician Time

Arizona Geological History: Chapter 3: Devonian to Permian Time

Arizona Geological History Chapter 4: Triassic Period

Arizona Geological History Chapter 5: Jurassic Time

Arizona Geological History 6, The Cretaceous Period

Arizona Geological History 7: The Cenozoic Era

The statutory mission of AZGS is:

1. Serve as a primary source of geologic information in this state to enhance public understanding of the state’s geologic character, geologic hazards and limitations and mineral resources.

2. Inform, advise and assist the public in matters concerning the geological processes, materials and landscapes and the development and use of the mineral resources of this state.

3. Encourage the wise use of the lands and mineral resources of this state toward its development.

4. Provide technical advice and assistance in geology to other state and local governmental agencies engaged in projects in which the geologic setting, character or mineral resources of the state are involved.

5. Provide technical advice and assistance in geology to industry toward the wise development and use of the mineral and land resources of this state.

The Arizona Geological Survey is a leader among state surveys.  For instance, last year the Arizona Geological Survey received an $18 million grant from the Department of Energy to lead a coalition of 46 state geologic surveys and universities to study the geothermal resources of the United States.

In April of this year, the Arizona Department of Mines and Mineral Resources was deactivated and its duties transferred to the Arizona Geological Survey.  These duties include maintaining a repository of mineral and mining information, including databases, books, periodicals, individual mine files, mine map repository files, mining district data and an archive of mine data; and providing quality mining data, evaluation, and assistance relating to mineral development to the legislature, federal, state and local governmental agencies, industry, and the public.

An example of the Arizona Geological Survey’s direct value to citizens is its brochure: A home buyer’s guide to geologic hazards.  The Survey has published warnings to the public of the additional  consequences of our devastating forest fires: Forest fires create increased danger of destructive debris flows.  The Survey provides expertise in the realm of geology as applied to water law and regulation, for instance: San Pedro River Geology – Implications for water law.

You can voice your opinion by sending emails to the co-chairs of the hearing committee: John Nelson, jnelson@azleg.gov and Kate Brophy-McGee, Kbrophymcgee@azleg.gov as well as to your own state representatives.

The Arizona Geological Survey (AZGS) has now compiled “some of the most significant publications [about gold mining and gold deposits], scanned them, produced PDF files, deployed an optical character recognition filter to facilitate word searches” and has posted them on its website for free download. (Link to free publications)

You can see production by county here. That page briefly describes gold districts within the counties.

You can read about mining scams here, a report from the now defunct State Department of Mines and Mineral Resources. The site is now maintained by AZGS.

Arizona is blessed with abundant mineral resources, see map below.