The physiography of southeastern Arizona is characterized by long, thin mountain ranges separated by broad, fault-bounded valleys. This physiography, which is unique on the planet, is the result of crustal extension that occurred between 8- to 12 million years ago.

The story of the evolution of SE Arizona is the subject of a featured article in the new Fall-Winter 2012 issue of Arizona Geology magazine, published by the Arizona Geological Survey. The paper is “Post-Tectonic Landscape Evolution in Southeastern Arizona: When Did a River Start to Run Through It?” by Matthew C. Jungers.

Initially, the basins had internal drainage and were not connected. Jungers’ story shows how geologic forces gradually connected the basins and how the Gila-Santa Cruz-San Pedro river system developed. The article also describes how he figured it out.

The graphic below shows the sequence of events according to Jungers:

His figure caption reads:

“Figure 2. Final stages of the Basin and Range disturbance. (A) Structural basins were filled with sediment, and most basins were still internally drained. (B) Following the cessation of extensional tectonics in the region, basins continued to fill with sediment and faults were buried. Basins began to integrate with the main stem Gila River via a combination of basin spillover and headward drainage capture. (C) Following integration with an adjacent basin, sedimentary fill was incised as its basin adjusted to a new, lower base level. (D) As a new, through-flowing drainage network was established, integrated basins graded to the Gila River. The shift to an oscillating climate in the Quaternary may be preserved in flights of terraces that record alternating periods of floodplain stability followed by rapid incision. Figure adapted from Menges and Pearthree, 1989.”

Read the full article here.

For more geology stories, see my Article Index page.

The Arizona Geological Survey has just released a 78-page report and six maps of the Quaternary geology of the San Pedro River system. According to the survey, “The geologic maps, which encompass a two-mile wide swath centered on the river, provide foundational geologic data, i.e., context, for deciphering the past 10,000-year history of the San Pedro river system. Stakeholders – water managers, civil authorities, ranchers, wildlife biologists, archeologists, environmentalists, and the Arizona public – should find these maps indispensable in considering the physical and biological character of the San Pedro riparian corridor.” Portions of Aravaipa Creek, and the Babocomari River are included in the study.

The report goes into great detail defining the characteristics of deposits associated with the river system. This helps define the floodplain and the deposits which carry the subflow of water along the river beneath the surface.

The mapping was done principally to provide better information to the Arizona Department of Water Resources. Since the 1930s, there has been a legal controversy about whether or not the subflow through the river sediments is part of the river system or the groundwater system. Each is adjudicated differently. The geological survey provides no opinion, just the science that hopefully will aid ADWR and the courts in coming to a decision.

Besides geology, the report provides interesting archaeological information about artifacts from inhabitants along the river from almost 12,000 years ago to historic cultures.

River deposits commonly consist of two fairly distinct phases: channel deposits dominated by sand and gravel, and overbank deposits found on floodplains and terraces that are composed of fine sand, silt and clay with minor gravel. River channel deposits are distinguished from tributary deposits based on the presence of well-rounded pebbles and cobbles composed of diverse rock types derived from upstream areas along the river. Tributary deposits typically have less diversity of rock types, gravel tends to be more angular, and in many areas, tributary deposits have less silt and clay. Overbank deposits associated with the river typically are thicker and more laterally extensive than fine-grained tributary deposits, although deposits of large tributaries may be quite similar to river deposits.

Several archaeological investigations have been conducted of latest Pleistocene Paleoindian sites in the upper San Pedro Valley. These sites include the remains of large mammals such as mammoth, and spear points and other human artifacts, indicating the presence of big-game hunters in association with late Pleistocene fauna. Radiocarbon ages obtained from these sites date to about 12,000 years ago.

The mountains delineating the San Pedro drainage basin generally are north-to-northwest-trending fault-block ranges of diverse lithology formed by extensional forces during the Basin and Range disturbance from about 25 to 8 million years ago. As the basin was forming it was synchronously being filled with sediments eroded from adjacent mountain blocks.

Initially, these sediments were shed into one or more closed basins in the San Pedro Valley, resulting in a playa to pluvial lake-like environment (analogous to modern Willcox Playa) represented by extensive playa, lacustrine, and marginal playa to distal fan facies presently exposed in the lower San Pedro Valley.

(Geology speak for the next paragraphs: Pluvial = referring to the action of rain; Lacustrine = referring to lakes; Fluvial = referring to rivers)

Prior to the late 1800’s the San Pedro River was a relatively low-energy, unentrenched fluvial system with extensive marshy reaches, or cienegas.

During early historical times the San Pedro was known to be home to beavers, antelope, and numerous species of fish. In some areas a distinct channel was absent and marshy grasslands dominated. Beginning in the 1870s there was modification of the floodplain due to ranching, mining, and the subsequent construction of railroads. Many of the cienegas and beaver ponds were purposely drained to reduce the mosquito population in an attempt to prevent the spread of malaria. By about 1930 most of the San Pedro had been transformed from a low-energy, unentrenched fluvial system with a broad floodplain to a higher energy, in some places deeply incised channel.

Although these factors may have contributed to the widespread arroyo cutting observed along many rivers in the southwest, including the San Pedro, multiple episodes of arroyo cutting and subsequent backfilling occurred prior to the land-use changes associated with the most recent episode of incision and can only be attributed to natural variations in climate, vegetation, and wet-dry cycles.

Prior to historical entrenchment of the San Pedro River, vegetation in the valley consisted of tall range and marsh grasses largely void of woody shrubs and mesquite. Since the development of modern San Pedro Valley conditions, mesquite and acacia have become common on the piedmont and dense mesquite bosque is common on pre-entrenchment floodplains.

If you are interested in geology, archaeology, water supply, or your position on the floodplain, this is worth a read. 

The report and maps may be downloaded, without charge, from AZGS website here:

http://www.azgs.state.az.us/sanpedroriver2009.shtml

The file DM-DF-1 contains the report. Six other files DM-DF-1A through DM-DF-1F contain preview maps and detailed, high resolution maps of six segments of the river system.

If you want more information on water rights adjudication, start at this ADWR site:

http://tinyurl.com/nflmuu

A gentle slope leading from the base of a mountain to a region of flat land.